培养学生自主学习的能力
Brainstorming这种外语教学中常用的教学技巧可直译为“头脑风暴法”。头脑风暴法又称智力激励法，是由美国创造学家A.F.奥斯本于1939年首次提出、1953午正式发表的一种激发学生创造性思维的方法。头脑风暴法是一种通过小型会议的组织形式，让所有参加者在自由、愉快、畅所欲言的气氛中自由交换观点，并以此诱发集体智慧，激发学习者创意与灵感的学习方法。顾名思义，使用Brainstorming这种技巧的目的是为了集中给学生一个想象和思考的……一、Brainstorming活动的意义
1.Brainstorming能帮助学生成为成功的学习者。
Rubin和Thompson曾对成功的学习者做过研究，他们发现这些人都具备以下几种素质：
1)对语言信息的组织能力
成功的语言学习者具有对所学的知识进行组织与整合的能力。教师精心设计的课前“热身活动”能够调动学生已有的知识和经验，并把他们的注意力引导到将要学习的内容上来，从而在新旧知识之间建立一种联系。每个学习者都有自己独特的整合知识的方法，然而相当一些“热身活动”的语言的组织与学生头脑中语言的组织是不一样的，这对学习的成功起了阻碍的作用。Brainstorming可以帮助学生组织他们头脑中自己的语言，帮助学生从语言上和内容上对所要写的题目作好充分和必要的准备。
2)自主学习的能力
成功的语言学习者具有自主学习的能力。Brainstorming提倡教师指导下的以学生为中心的学习，注重激发学生的学习兴趣，帮助学生形成学习动机，并创设符合教学内容要求的情境和提示新旧知识之间联系的线索，从而为学生自主完成学习任务提供多种可选择的资源。Brainstorming还提倡协作学习，通过讨论与交流引导学生发现规律和加深其对所学内容的理解。
3)在学习上大胆进行明智的猜测
成功的语言学习者不怕在学习中出现错误，认为出错是语言学习过程中的基本组成部分之一，通过错误可以发现学习中的薄弱环节并加以改善。因此，语误是学习过程中的必然特征。学习者在长期与真实语言的接触中，会逐渐地用正确的形式代替不正确的形式，养成正确运用语言形式的习惯。在Brainstorming阶段不以对或错评判学生的观点。因此，Brainstorming可以降低学生的焦虑程度，使学生有充分的想象空间和充分发表观点和见解的机会，并能由此获得一种成就感，增强其学习的信心。
4)利用情境理解所学知识
成功的语言学习者善于利用情境理解学习内容，但是外语课堂教学往往缺少真实的语境，Brainstorming可使学生有机会把已有的相关知识（内容图式）从记忆中提取出来，为理解知识创造所需要的语境。
二、Brainstorming的组织形式
Brainstorming可以按以下组织形式进行：
1.个人思考。
2.成对或小组活动。
3.全班讨论。教师把全班学生的想法（最好以短语或词组的形式）写在黑板上。
4.全班进一步讨论。教师引导学生对提出的想法进行评价、评论、比较、对比、重组和归类，选出最重要的或最有代表性的观点。
5.个人进行写作。
1)个人思考
写作是表达思想的一种手段，好的文章来自于高质量的思考。在小组活动之前，教师应给学生大约3～5分钟的时间对所要讨论的内容进行思考。在这几分钟内，新鲜的想法或早巳储存在学生头脑中的图式被激活；但是这些想法还只是无序的“原材料”，需要在小组以及全班讨论中进行加工。
2)成对或小组活动
成对活动通常是同桌活动。在这种形式的活动中，学生之间互相启发，把双方的想法清晰化和条理化，并用英语口头表述出来，或用纸、笔记录下来。教师此时的任务是为学生提供及时的指导和帮助。教师也可以参与个别需要帮助的小组的讨论。
3)全班活动
教师引导和鼓励学生积极参与讨论，并把每个学生或小组的发言要点写在黑板上。如果有的学生用英语表述某个想法时感到困难，可以允许其先说出中文，然后向全班同学或老师求助。如果某个想法遇到了挑战，也要允许学生对修正这一想法提出新的观点。对于表述不清楚或过于概括的想法，教师可要求提出者加以解释。例如下面的教学片段：
S[,1]:I think wearing school uniform can save money。
S[,2]:What do you mean by"saving money"?
S[,3]:If students don't wear school uniforms,they have to buy a variety of clothes.So,school uniforms cost less.
全班学生进行Brainstorming之后，教师可以让学生个人或以小组为单位选择其认为最重要的若干信息。为了活跃课堂气氛，教师也可以采取让学生举手表决的形式，在多数人同意的观点旁做记号，然后把这些想法归类。为了帮助学生写作，教师应指导学生把归纳出的短语扩展成句子。
三、使用Brainstorming技巧应遵循的原则
1.尊重每个学生的意见，列出所有学生提出的想法；不随意批评别人的建议，不要打断别人的发言；发表见解要简单明了，一次发言只谈一种见解。
2.要学会倾听，不要私下交谈，以免分散注意力。
3.小组成员互相补充和扩展，改进并完善他人的意见。
4.鼓励比较内向或平时不爱发育的学生发表意见。
5.鼓励学生提出各种想法，特别是与众不同的想法。在这个阶段，建议和意见的数量比质量更重要。
6.鼓励善于利用别人的灵感丰富自己的想象。
四、Brainstorming的应用实例
例1：围绕话题"Student should wear school uniforms."进行Brainstorming。教师（或指定的学生）按照学生的发言顺序在黑板的一侧记下学生的想法。这时可不必过多地考虑板书的规整。以下是全班讨论时的板书内容：
"Reasons for wearing school uniforms"
Ioose and big,good for playing sports,easy to recognize,proud to represent one's school,easy for school to manage when having activities with other schools or going outside,can be seen by drivers in crossing the street,help remember they are students,save money,don't have to think what to wear,pay more attention to studies,school campus looks tidier,everyone is the same.
教师把学生讨论后形成的统一意见写在黑板的另一侧。
附图
例2：围绕话题"Keeping pets”进行Brainstorming。教师可通过下列问题对学生进行引导。例如：
Do you have any pets?
What kind of pets do you have?
Why do you like to keep...?
What kinds of pets do people keep?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of keeping pets?
教师将分类结果以Cluster的形式通过板书或投影的呈现出来。
附图
下面是一名高一学生根据以下语言素材写的一段话：
I like to keep cats as pet.I used to have a cat.Everyday I played with the cat when my parents were at work.Wherever andwhenever I went,I would bring the cat with me.We were really good friends.But now I don't have any of them any more.I gave my cat to my neighbour,because I'm very busy with me.We were really good friends.But not I don't have any of them any more.I gave my cat to my neighbour,because I'm very busy with my studies.Keeping the cat took too much time and attention from me.If I had some time in the future,I surely would keep a cat again.
例3：围绕话题："Television has always had bad influence on society,do you agree?"进行Brainstorming教师在黑板上列两栏："Reasons for watching television"和"Reasons against watching television",然后引导全班进行讨论。
Reasons for watching television:
make life more interesting,get to know more about other countries,enjoy beautiful scenery around the world,keep people better informed,educational value, provided with entertainment and relaxation by interesting programmes,learn skills,learn foreign languages,tele-shopping,learn how to cook,learn farming methods,watch favourite films,learn school
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;subjects
Reasons against watching television:
lower motivation in studies; damage eyesight; make people lazy;don't want to do housework; unhealthy programmes such as vi.olence,sex or murder for children;misleading TV commercials;children learn how to fight or make girl friends and boy friends at an early age; harm people's health.
教师也可以用Spider map的形式列出学生提出的所有想法（见下图）：
附图
然后教师可以归纳学生的讨论结果，并通过表格的形式展示出来。（见下表）
Advantages of Watching Television
Entertainment Education Information
favourite films foreign languages
interesting school courses news
programmes skill training around
etc. (cooking,farming) the world,
etc. etc.
下面是Brainstorming之后一个学生写出的短文：
Television is considered to be one of the greatest inventions of the last century.As I can remember,the word "television",comes from two words --"tele" and "vision",which means "far"and"see".So television is an appliance that can help us see far.Infact,television has played an important part in modern society since its invention.It makes the world smaller, as we can beinformed of what is happening around the world.It entertains us with different kinds of programmes,lt also helps us learn.Some people even believe that our society cannot advance without television.
As every coin has two sides,television also causes some problems。 The first one is a health problem.We often call those who watch TV too much"couch potatoes" because they watch Tv for too long and always eat while watching,which makes them puton weight easily.Their lack of exercises may also cause other diseases.Secondly,watching too much TV is a waste of time.No matter whether you are a teacher,a student or an office clerk,or even a housewife,you may always have something more important to do.But if you are "addicted" to waching TV,you are likely to neglect other things.What's more,some television programmes have a bad influence on teenagers.Not all programmes on TV are good or suitable for children. Some of them make matters worse,because children may imitate what they have seen on TV.That's one of the reasons why there are so many school shootings or cases of robbery in the USA.
In my opinion, though television does have some bad influence on society,it is still a useful tool in our daily life.The most important thing is our attitude towards it:We can wach TV to get information or entertain ourselves,but we shouldn't spend too much time on it.Children should also be allowed to watch TV,but they must be given necessary; guidance about whatto watch and how long to watch every day.If used well,television will become our reliable friend and will be beneficial to thedevelopment of our society.
Brainstorming重视写前的行为指导和行为矫正，能使写的行为配合“想”的过程，并把“想”的成果体现在纸上。实践证明，这种写的准备性程序的训练是有效的，对提高学生的整体语言素质和培养其写作的能力也是必要的。
【参考文献】
1 Brown,H.D.1994.Teaching by Principles.Prentice Hall.
2 何克抗：“建构主义——革新传统教学的理论基础”，《电化教育研究》，1997年。
3 Arthur,B.1998.Beginning to Write.Cambridge University Press
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